Reading+Work+Activity

**Phonological Awareness Training for Reading**
 * It is designed to increase the level of phonological awareness in youngsters and can be used with at-risk kindergartners to help prepare them for reading in first grade or with first or second graders who are having difficulty learning to read.
 * It takes about 12-14 weeks to complete if children are taught in short sessions three to four times a week
 * Children learn to hear the individual sounds in whole words as well as to blend individual sounds into words.
 * All words in the program are presented on picture cards, and game boards are used to provide reinforcing activities.
 * The program is divided into four sets of activities: warm-up, sound, blending, sound segmenting, and reading and spellingA training manual contains instructions for all phases of the program and includes sample scripts for teaching specific concepts.
 * The warm-up phase includes rhyming activities to help children focus their attention on the sounds in words.
 * Following the warm-up, children begin the formal training program with activities that each them to blend individual sounds to make words.
 * They then begin the more difficult segmenting activities.
 * In the final phase of the program, children learn to generalize their acquired phonological awareness skills to reading and spelling simple words.


 * Phonics Instruction **
 * focuses on helping students learn the relationships between graphemes and phoneme.
 * teaches students the alphabetic principle that there are predictable and systematic relationships between written letters and spoken sounds.
 * teaches students a system for remembering and recognizing words.


 * __Types of Phonic Instruction:__**
 * Analogy-based phonics:
 * teaches students to decode unfamiliar words by analogy to word families they know.
 * Analytic phonics:
 * teaches students to analyze letter-sound relationships in known words to help decode unfamiliar words.
 * Embedded phonics:
 * teaches students letter-sound relationships during the reading of text.
 * Phonics through Spelling:
 * teaches students to segment words into phonemes and to write letters for those phonemes.
 * Onset-rime phonics instruction:
 * teaches students to identify the sound of the letter(s) before the first vowel in a one-syllable word and the sound of the voel in the remaining part of the word.
 * Synthetic phonics:
 * teaches students explicitly to convert letters into sounds and then blend them to pronounce recognizable words.
 * Explicit phonics instruction:
 * involves direct teacher instruction that includes teacher modeling, guided practice, and corrective feedback.
 * Systematic phonics instruction:
 * better reading outcomes than nonsystematic or no phonics instruction.
 * It involves a clearly defined sequence of instruction that gradually builds from basic elements of letter-sound associations.
 * Systematic and explicit phonics instruction:
 * provides many opportunities for youngsters to practice decoding or recognizing the letter-sound relationships they are learning.
 * Includes reading stories and books that words they can decode.
 * Writing and spelling activities are stressed.

**Fluency Instruction**
 * ====Fluency is the ability to read quickly and accurately.====
 * ====Fluency promotes memory and applications.====
 * ====Research indicates that fluency in reading text is highly correlated to reading comprehension.====

Fluency and Theory

 * ====Theory of Automaticity====
 * Higher levels of fluency allow students to be more developed in automaticity in their reading.
 * ====Theory of Sight Word Efficiency====
 * Having knowledge of the sight words is a key component for developing fluency in their reading.
 * These words are stored in their long term memory.
 * ====Theory of Cumulative Deficit====
 * Students in grades 3-12 learn 3,000 new vocabulary words each year.
 * ====Theory/ Research of Processing Speed====
 * Neuhaus and Swank (2002) found that the speed of naming letters is a basic reading test and that letter reading fluency predicts word reading accuracy.

Fluency and Stages of Reading Development

 * ====Prereading====
 * Focus on picture, what is going to happen in the story.
 * ====Decoding====
 * Grades 1-2
 * Fluency learning consists of building speed on identifying letter-sound relationships.
 * Students begin to sound out words.
 * ====Confirmation and Fluency====
 * Grade 3
 * Break the alphabetic code and reading speed dramatically increases.
 * Sight vocabulary increases.
 * ====Reading to Learn====
 * Grade 4-8
 * Fluency consists of teaching vocabulary and assessing oral and silent reading fluency.
 * ====Reading for Multiple Viewpoints====
 * Grades 9-12
 * Reader adds new sight vocabulary and learns to think and construct knowledge via words.
 * ====Reading to Construct New Knowledge====

Fluency Rate

 * ====Four factors to consider are reading genre, maturity of reader, purpose of reading, and grade level.====
 * Genre- If it is something they are interested in they are more likely to read faster.
 * Maturity of reader-Students who reach Confirmation and Fluency stage read more fluently that those in lower stages.
 * Purpose of reading-affects rate (studying for a test decreases the rate)
 * Grade level-difficulty of word varies across graded passages.
 * ====Reading Fluency tests====
 * DIBLES- Dynamic Indicators of Basic Emergent Literacy Skills
 * Put Reading First- Word per minute rates
 * ====Fluency problems tend to emerge in fourth and fifth grade.====

** Vocabulary Instruction **

Definition: How Children Learn Vocabulary: Remember: //Put Reading First//:
 * Vocabulary referes to the words a person has learned and uses to communicate effectively.
 * Auditory-Based Vocab (Oral):
 * Listening: words a person knows and understands when heard
 * Speaking: words used when communicating
 * Visual-Based Vocab:
 * Reading: understanding print and words a person reads
 * Writing: words used when writing
 * Indirect:
 * Listening to adults reading to them
 * Talking about concepts of words
 * Through conversations
 * Repeated words adults use
 * Reading independently
 * Direct instruction
 * Specific word instruction
 * Word learning strategies
 * Teacher modeling
 * Guided practic
 * Instructional feedback
 * Students should have multiple exposures to words across time to promote understanding.
 * It is beneficial for students to work in small groups or pairs to engage in vocab activities.
 * Students without reading disabilities typically add 3,000 new words yearly after 3rd grade.
 * There is a positive correlation between independent reading and fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.
 * Prioritize direct instruction into three categories: important words, difficult words, and useful words.
 * important words: words for understanding the text
 * difficult words: words with multiple meanings
 * useful words: words that occur frequently
 * Learning a new meaning to a known word.
 * Clarifying and enriching the meaning of a known word

**Basal Reading Approach** //The Basal Reading Approach is a method of teaching reading to children. The program's name comes from the word "base" or "basic." It involves using a series of books, or readers, tailored to a specific reading level. This approach has been used for centuries and is still in use today.//
 * Many teachers use a basal reading series as the core of their program
 * helps with phonemic awareness, fluency, text comprehension, and vocabulary
 * Most series include a sequential set of reading texts and supplementary materials such as workbooks, flash cards, skill packs, wall charts, related activities, placement and achievement tests, and computer software.
 * A comprehensive teacher's manual explains the purpose of the program and provides precise instructional plans and suggestions for skill activities. The teachers manual usually is highly structured and completely outlines each lesson, perhaps including skill objectives, new vocabulary words, motivational activities, and questions for checking comprehension on each page of the text.

Basal readers contain stories with many details and often are divided into small parts. Thus, location exercises can be given to find the main idea or main characters as well as specific words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs.
 * Directed Reading Activity**
 * 1) Motivate the student to learn the material.
 * 2) Prepare the student by presenting new concepts and vocabulary.
 * 3) Guide the student in reading the story by asking questions that give a purpose or goal for the reading.
 * 4) Develop or strengthen skills relating to the material through drills or workbook activities.
 * 5) Assign work to apply the skills acquired during the lesson.
 * 6) Evaluate the effectiveness of the lesson.


 * Advantages of Basal Reading Approach**
 * Systematic and follows logical sequence.
 * The levels progress from emergent reader to advanced reader with smooth transitions and consistency.
 * Teachers are provided with the tools they need to evaluate students' knowledge and progress, as well as guidance as to how to teach and extend each lesson.
 * Teacher can adjust or supplement the materials to meet the individual needs of students with reading problems.
 * Convenient package of materials, techniques, and assessment devices
 * Sequenced from grade to grade, providing continuous reading instruction


 * Disadvantages of Basal Reading Approach**
 * It's designed for groups of readers, which makes it difficult to teach the gifted or self-taught reader and just as difficult to modify for the student who has learning disabilities in reading.



Teaching Students with Learning Problems, 8th Edition, Cecil D. Mercer; Ann R. Mercer; Paige C. Pullen (2011)

**Whole Language Approach**

**Linguistic Approach: Word Families and Onset-Rime**
 * Bloomfield and Barnhart introduced the linquistic approach to reading for students who were not succeeding in the basal approach.
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Words are taught in word families that are organized around rimes and onsets.
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">A kindergarten lesson would feature word rimes involving /a/ (e.g., at) and onset (e.g., cat, bat, and hat) build sight vocabulary.
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">A first grade lesson continues adding more rimes and onsets to build sight vocabulary
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Word families grow as the learner makes progress. Word identification occurs by using analogy phonics. For example, when encountering the unknown word zip, the reader is encouraged to think of another word with ip rime (e.g. lip) Thus, the youngster thinks that if l-i-p is pronounced “lip” then z-i-p must be “zip.”

<span style="color: #ce0ea6; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">**Reading Mastery and Corrective Reading** Both have produced positive reading outcomes for diverse learners and the skills and instructional procedures used in the programs have a scientific basis.
 * Reading Mastery:**
 * Features step-by-step instruction for phonemic awareness, decoding, and comprehension.
 * Uses a synthetic phonics approach and emphasizes basic decoding skills, including sound-symbol identification, left-to-right sequence, and the oral blending of sounds to make words.
 * Procedure:
 * students are group according to their current abilities with no more than five students in a group.
 * sit in chairs in a quarter circle around the teacher.
 * Students get through a 30 minute lessson.
 * When a student masters materials, the student moves up to a different (higher level) group.
 * Corrective Reading:**
 * an advanced remedial reading program designed for students in third grade through adult age who have not mastered decoding and comprehension skills.
 * divided into two strands: decoding and comprehension.
 * each lesson lasts 45 minutes.
 * Decoding includes word-attack, decoding strategies, and skill applications.
 * Comprehension includesreal-life situations, comprehension skills, and concept applications.

<span style="color: #0dbf07; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">**Success for All**

 * ====The Success for All Foundation's comprehensive programs are designed to engage the whole school in meeting the needs of all children.====
 * ====Our Instructional Design====
 * Cooperative learning
 * Active instruction-teacher prepares students for learning
 * Partner practice
 * Assessment
 * Celebration
 * ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Reading Roots ====
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Reading Roots provides a strong base for successful reading due to its emphasis on systematic phonics instruction through FastTrack Phonics.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Begins in 1st grade
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">a ninety-minute comprehensive program that targets the needs of beginning readers. Reading Roots is a research-based beginning-reading program that provides a strong base for successful reading through systematic phonics instruction supported by decodable stories, along with instruction in fluency and comprehension.

Reading Wings

 * Research-based reading curriculum that provides ninety-minute daily lessons over a period of five days and targets the needs of students reading on a second- through sixth-grade level who have successfully learned to decode but need to develop more sophisticated reading skills.
 * ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">KinderCorner ====
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">KinderCorner specifically targets language and literacy development through the discussion of thematic concepts to promote the children’s phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, and oral-language development.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Used in Kindergarten.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 130%;">** Reading Recovery **

Definition:
 * An early interevention program developed for young children ezperiencing difficulty in beginning reading, combines writing and reading and helps children learn phonics within meaningful written contexts.
 * Combines whole language with tutoring in specific skills.
 * 30 minutes daily over 12-20 weeks

Steps:
 * 1) The student rereads two easy books.
 * 2) Student works on a book and the teacher conducts a diagnostic prodecure in which the teacher records the student's errors and reading strategies.
 * 3) The student manipulates plastic letters on a magnetic board to work with letters.
 * 4) The student dictates and practices writing. The teacher and student work together on spelling.
 * 5) The teacher writes the sentence on a strip of paper, cuts it up, and asks the student to recreate it.
 * 6) The student prepares for and reads an unfamilar book.

Remember:
 * Students are discontinued once reading at grade level.
 * Teachers go through a 30- hour workshop before the school year.
 * This structure emphasizes direct teaching of metacognitive strategies, learning to read by reading, teaching of phonics in the content of the student's writing, and the integration of reading and writing.
 * This strategy was found effective on alphabetics and general reading achievement and potentially positive effects on fluency and comprehension.

<span style="color: #cc4f0f; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">**Oral Reading Fluency** Most reading fluency interventions for at-risk learners involve having the student read aloud. For promoting fluency, Vaughn and Bos recommend the following guidelines for teacher-directed previewing of books to be read aloud.
 * 1) Select a book or story that is close to the student's instructional reading level (approximately 90 percent accuracy level.)
 * 2) Introduce the book or story to the student and review potentially difficult words.
 * 3) Read the story to the student at a conversational rate (120 to 140 words per minute) or at a rate consistent with the fluency standards for the students age or maturity.
 * 4) Pair the student with a student partner and have the students take turns reading with the better reader reading first.
 * 5) Have the students review difficult words.
 * 6) Use a fluency measure to monitor the progress of each student frequently.

Neurological Impress Method

 * Developed to teach reading to students with severe reading disabilities
 * Methods consist of joint oral reading at a rapid pace by the student and the teacher.
 * Based on the theory that students can learn by hearing their own voice and someone else's voice jointly reading the same material
 * The student is seated slightly in front of the teacher, and the teacher's voice is directed into the student's ear at a close range and no preparation of the material before the joint reading needed.
 * First the teacher should read slightly louder and faster than the student, who should be encouraged to maintain the pace and not worry about mistakes
 * As the student becomes capable of leading the oral reading, the teacher can speak more softly and read slightly slower,and the student's finger can point to the reading.
 * Instruction begins at a level slightly below what the student can successfully read.
 * **The basic goal is for the student to attain fluent reading automatically** and the neurological impress method emphasizes rapid decoding and can be used with students who spend too much time sounding out words and do not read fluently.

Repeated Readings

 * Most young children thoroughly enjoy having the same books read to them repeatedly.
 * A student becomes very familiar with the text, and the student's memory becomes a great aid to his or her reading.
 * The student reads the story enough to become fluent and confident when reading it.
 * Repeated readings enable the student to identify some unknown words with the help of memory and the flow of the story.
 * Requires the student to reread a short, meaningful passage several times until a satisfactory level of fluency (for students beyond third grade, 100 correct words per minute with two errors) is reached. The procedure then is repeated with a new passage.
 * Repeated readings thus emphasize reading rate on a single passage rather than single words, and identification of words in context must be fast as well as accurate.
 * 1) Use repeated readings consistently (four or five times weekly) to increase the reading level, fluency, and comprehension of students who experience difficulty learning to read.
 * 2) Use reading materials that are in the student's instructional range (90 percent accuracy).
 * 3) Have the student read passages until the target fluency rate is achieved (three to five times).
 * 4) Allow multiple readings or practice readings prior to timing the reading to improve fluency.
 * 5) Provide adult feedback and guidance during readings.
 * 6) Use decodable or predictable text as much as possible.
 * 7) Review difficult words prior to timing the reading.
 * 8) Model fluent reading.
 * 9) Use goal setting, graph the student's progress, and share the graph with the student.
 * **Repeated readings significantly improve students' word recognition, fluency, and comprehension.**
 * Can be used in a variety of learning arrangements, such as small group instruction such as choral reading, peer reading with pairs, and learning centers.
 * Comprehension practice can be provided through activities involving the cloze and maze procedure ( reading the passage and filling in the blanks for omitted words with the words that can complete phrases or sentences correctly.)

Recorded Repeated Readings

 * Student can listen to the stories while simultaneously reading the text, or the student can simply follow the printed text while listening to the audio recorded book. The read-along procedure is repeated until the student can read the story alone.
 * 1) Select interesting books or passages within the student's instructional range( 90 percent accuracy).
 * 2) Audiotape the passage with a quality recorder using a conversational rate with proper phrasing and expression. Record cues on the tape to help the student keep his or her place. For example, allow 10 seconds of blank tape in the beginning, remind the student to use strategies, use a signal cue for turning the page, announce the page number for each page, and instruct the student to put a finger on the first word on the page prior to beginning to read.
 * 3) Record about 10 minutes on each side of the tape, and label each side of the tape with the title of the book and the page numbers.
 * 4) Store each tape and corresponding book in a clear plastic bag.
 * 5) Have students make a reading folder to include forms on which the student can record information on books read.
 * 6) Consider the use of computer software to offer another method for repeated readings, For example, Wiggleworks (produced by Scholastic) provides opportunities for the student to listen to recorded stories and read along with the recording, and it also enables the student to record his or her own reading.
 * The tape recorded repeated readings method yields the best results out of the three methods.

**<span style="color: #0797ac; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Reciprocal Teaching **

Reciprocal Teaching is an interactive teaching strategy that promotes both comprehension of text and comprehension monitoring though active participation in discussions of text. The teacher and students work together to comprehend text through the sue of dialogue structured by four strategies.


 * 1) Predicting: Students are taught to make predictions about upcoming content from cues in the text or from prior knowledge of the topic.
 * 2) Question generating: Though teacher modeling and practice in generating main idea questions about the text, students learn to identify information that provides the substance for a good question.
 * 3) Summarizing: The teacher guides students in integrating the information presented in the text.
 * 4) Clarifying: The students' attention is given to reasons why the text may be difficult to understand. They are taught to reread or ask for help to restore meaning.

In reciprocal teaching, the teacher initially leads the dialogue and models the use of the four strategies while reading. Though guided practice, the dialogue is transferred to the students. Thus, there is interplay among the teacher and students, and the teacher uses explanation, instruction, and modeling with guided practice to help students independently apply the strategies and learn from text.

Englert and Mariage present a comprehension procedure that includes the reciprocal teaching format as well as semantic mapping to improve students' recall of information in expository text. In POSSE, students apply the following strategies.

P- Predict text ideas based on background knowledge O- Organize the predicted textual ideas and background knowledge into a semantic map based on text structure. S- Search for the text structure in the expository passage by reading. S- Summarize the main ideas and record the information in a semantic map. E- Evaluate comprehension by comparing the semantic maps, clarify information by asking questions, and predict what information will be in the next text section.

In this procedure students take turns leading the comprehension dialogue; group interaction promotes internalization of the reading strategies. In addition, the teacher constructs a semantic map of students' ideas to visually represent the text structure and organization of ideas. Thus, text structure mapping and reciprocal teaching within the reading process are combined.

http://sped420spring2012.wikispaces.com/Reading+Work